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Genetic characteristics: Studies have found that isolates from biovar Gallinarum were can be multidrug-resistant. More specifically, antibiogram analysis revealed that biovar Gallinarum in the U.S. exhibited high prevalence of resistance to cephradine, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin, streptomycin, and ampicillin. Farahani et al. found that the antibiotic resistance rates among 60 biovar Gallinarum isolates in Iran were as follows: penicillin (100%), nitrofurantoin (80%), nalidixic acid (45%), cefoxitin (35%), neomycin sulfate (30%), chloramphenicol (20%), and ciprofloxacin (5%).
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Geographical distribution: Biovar Gallinarum has been reported worldwide.
OutbreaksAnimal outbreaks: There have been multiple outbreaks in chickens associated with biovar Gallinarum. Examples are shown below:
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