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Background information: Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Gallinarum (antigenic formula 1,9,12:–:–) is a serovar of the O:9 (D1) serogroup. This serovar has two biovars: Gallinarum, and Pullorum. Biovar Gallinarum has been found to show host specificity for aquatic birds, and poultry and can cause fowl typhoid (acute or chronic septicemiaFT) in birds of any age, often spreading through adult flocks. Fowl typhoid FT can spread through ingestion, such as contaminated food, water, or cannibalism, as well as through the respiratory system. Live attenuated vaccines (SG9R) to prevent fowl typhoid FT were first created in 1956 with the development of the Gallinarum rough strain. Since serovar Gallinarum relies solely on domestic and aquatic fowl as its reservoir, as a result, the test-and-slaughter approach implemented through surveillance programs successfully eradicated the serovar from commercial poultry flocks in in the United States, England, and Wales by the 1970s.
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Genetic characteristics: Studies have found that isolates from biovar Gallinarum were can be multidrug-resistant. More specifically, antibiogram analysis revealed that biovar Gallinarum in the U.S. exhibited high levels prevalence of resistance to cephradine, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin, streptomycin, and ampicillin. Farahani et al. found that the antibiotic resistance rates among 60 biovar Gallinarum isolates in Iran were as follows: penicillin (100%), nitrofurantoin (80%), nalidixic acid (45%), cefoxitin (35%), neomycin sulfate (30%), chloramphenicol (20%), and ciprofloxacin (5%).
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Geographical distribution: Serovar Biovar Gallinarum has been reported worldwide.
OutbreaksAnimal outbreaks: There have been multiple outbreaks in chickens associated with biovar Gallinarum. Here, we selected two as examples.Examples are shown below:
1 The flock size is 400, and 222 birds died.
2 The flock size is 10,000, and 2,400 birds died.
Border rejections: There have been no recent border rejections linked to this biovar.
Recalls: There have been no recent recalls linked to this biovar.
Relevant links:
- https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10812584/#:~:text=Salmonella%20enterica%20subsp.,disease%20(PD)%2C%20respectively
- https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001653?crawler=true#:~:text=Both%20biovars%20cause%20invasive%20and,often%20progresses%20through%20mature%20flocks.
- https://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/fowl_typhoid.pdf
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1056617119304234#:~:text=Live%20attenuated%20vaccines%20were%20first,except%20for%20the%20SG9R%20strain.
- https://www.jstor.org/stable/1589326?origin=crossref
- https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20063033929
- https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/acmi/10.1099/acmi.0.000775.v6
- https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10628085/#:~:text=This%20study%20showed%20a%20positive,gallinarum%20biovars%20are%20multidrug%2Dresistant.
- https://www.uvm.edu/sites/default/files/media/fowl_typhoid.pdf
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444525123001832
- https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-022-01605-x
- https://www.jstor.org/stable/1592212?seq=3
- https://bioone.org/journals/avian-diseases/volume-58/issue-3/10796-021114-Case.1/Fowl-Typhoid-Salmonella-Gallinarum-Outbreak-in-Japanese-Quail-Coturnix-coturnix/10.1637/10796-021114-Case.1.full