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Genetic characteristics:  Studies have found that isolates from biovar Gallinarum were multidrug-resistant. More specifically, antibiogram analysis revealed that biovar Gallinarum in the U.S. exhibited high levels of resistance to cephradine, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin, streptomycin, and ampicillin. Farahani et al. found that the antibiotic resistance rates among 60 biovar Gallinarum isolates in Iran were as follows: penicillin (100%), nitrofurantoin (80%), nalidixic acid (45%), cefoxitin (35%), neomycin sulfate (30%), chloramphenicol (20%), and ciprofloxacin (5%). 

Animal reservoir: Serovar Gallinarum has been found in .  Chickens are the primary hosts for biovar Gallinarum, although other bird species can also be affected. Besides chickens, biovar Gallinarum has been reported in turkeys, quail, guinea fowl, pheasants, peafowl, grouse, parrots, sparrows, ostriches, and ring-necked doves.

Geographical distribution: Serovar Gallinarum has been reported worldwide.

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  2. https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001653?crawler=true#:~:text=Both%20biovars%20cause%20invasive%20and,often%20progresses%20through%20mature%20flocks.
  3. https://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/fowl_typhoid.pdf
  4. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1056617119304234#:~:text=Live%20attenuated%20vaccines%20were%20first,except%20for%20the%20SG9R%20strain.
  5. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1589326?origin=crossref
  6. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20063033929
  7. https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/acmi/10.1099/acmi.0.000775.v6
  8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10628085/#:~:text=This%20study%20showed%20a%20positive,gallinarum%20biovars%20are%20multidrug%2Dresistant.
  9. https://www.uvm.edu/sites/default/files/media/fowl_typhoid.pdf
  10. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444525123001832